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A Biblical literalist chronology is a tabulation or reckoning of dates applied to events in the Bible according to the hermeneutical method of Biblical literalism. The method depends upon an exhaustive knowledge of the numbers of years explicitly stated in the Scriptures, comparison to known dates of specific events, and calculation. Such chronologies have given rise to substantial controversy. Their derivation presents several methodological challenges. Absolute consensus regarding the results has not yet emerged, as various tabulations have not yielded identical or harmonized results. == Background == A Biblical literalist chronology is a tabulation or reckoning of dates applied to events in the Bible according to the hermeneutical method of Biblical literalism.〔 This method has been in use since the time of Jose ben Halafta (''"Seder Olam Rabbah"'' 2nd century CE). Succeeding centuries saw its application by Jerome (''"Chronicon"'' c. 380 CE), Bede (''"De temporibus"'' 703 CE, ''"De temporum ratione"'' 725 CE), Scaliger (''"Thesaurus temporum"'' 1606), Kepler (''"Rudolphine Tables"'' 1627), John Lightfoot (chronology published 1642–1644), James Ussher (''"Annales veteris testamenti, a prima mundi origine deducti"'' 1650), and Martin Anstey (''"The Romance of Bible Chronology"'' 1913).〔Anstey, Rev. Martin, B.D., M.A. (London), ''(The Romance of Bible Chronology )'', Marshall Brothers, Ltd., London, Edinburgh and New York. October 3rd, 1913. This work is seen as significant within the tradition of Biblical literalism for developing the first Bible chronology that successfully resolved the Bible's apparent chronological gaps. See Chronology of the Bible.〕 Some 20th–21st century commentators have noted what they consider a disturbing trend in application of the method since 1878.〔Hyrus, Conrad. "(Biblical Literalism: Constricting the Cosmic Dance )", ''The Christian Century'', August 4–11, 1982. pp. 823–27. The Christian Century Foundation〕〔Wilson, Mandy. "(The History of Biblical Literalism: What You May Not Know )", ''Causeways'', March 24, 2013.〕〔Mandy Wilson, "The History of Biblical Literalism: What You May Not Know": —Wilson's provocative blog does not seem to be derived from an academic peer-reviewed source, nor from a traditional published medium with an active editor. Wilson appears to be quoting several sources, and citation of her source references is not offered, e.g.: :"Some scholars date the birth of Christian fundamentalism (as we know it) back to the 1878 Niagara Bible Conference." (); "Some have referenced Martin Luther, stating that fundamentalism was born along with his theology of Sola Scriptura." (); "In the 1980’s, theologian and pastor Urban T. Holmes went so far as to state that 'literalism is a modern heresy—perhaps the only heresy invented in modern times'." (); "Another theologian, Ruth Tiffany Barnhouse, suggests that fundamentalism should be regarded as 'the bastard child of science and religion'." () 1878 as a specific, ''significant'' date needs to be firmly defended, or softened, or abandoned. (''See'' Urban T. Holmes, III, Episcopal priest; ''and'' (Ruth Tiffany Barnhouse, author ); ''also'' (Mandy Wilson )).〕〔Borg, Marcus J., ''(Reading The Bible Again For The First Time: Taking the Bible Seriously But Not Literally )'', HarperSanFrancisco; Reprint edition (February 5, 2002); HarperCollins, Oct. 13, 2009. 336 pages.〕〔Review of Marcus J. Borg's book: (''Reading the Bible Again For The Very First Time.'' )〕 Modern Biblical literalism has been seen by some observers, such as Karen Armstrong,〔Armstrong, Karen (2000). ''The Battle for God: Fundamentalism in Judaism, Christianity and Islam'', Knopf/HarperCollins. Part Two: "Fundamentalism"〕 as largely the product of 19th- and 20th-century Protestant theology, though its roots are considered by others〔''The Fundamentals: A Testimony To The Truth'', 1910–1915, 4 Vol. Bible Institute of Los Angeles, ed. A. C. Dixon, Reuben Archer Torrey.〕 to go further back, at least to 17th- and 18th-century Bible commentaries by Laurence Tomson (Geneva Bible 1560, 1599), Matthew Henry 1708-1710, John Gill 1746-63, John Wesley 1754-65, followed by Adam Clarke 1831, Albert Barnes 1834, R. A. Torrey 1880, David Brown 1882, Marvin R. Vincent 1886, and B. W. Johnson 1891.〔See literalist premise expressed in multiple 17th—21st century literalist Bible commentaries on the meaning of (2 Timothy 3:16 ) "''All scripture is inspired by God''". Multiple translations and versions of this Bible text are presented, followed by the text of the commentaries with their original published sources noted. (biblehub.com)〕 The 1878 Niagara Bible Conference statement of faith established as the first of its ''Fourteen Points'', "The verbal, plenary inspiration of the Scriptures in the original manuscripts".〔(The 1878 Niagara Bible Conference Creed (NBCC) ) Retrieved 25 December 2013〕 The 1978 Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy in "A Short Statement" established as its fourth point: "Being wholly and verbally God-given, Scripture is without error or fault in all its teaching."〔(Text of Chicago Statement On Biblical Inerrancy ), October 1978 —Retrieved 28 January 2014.〕 The method is controversial. Assertions that scientifically verifiable, accurate historical datings are obtainable by using this approach as a guide are firmly disputed by researchers such as Kathleen Kenyon,〔(Kenyon, Kathleen 1906–1978 WorldCat Identities: Works by Kathleen Kenyon ) Retrieved 19 January 2014〕 William G. Dever〔(Dever, William G. curriculum vitae 2002 (published works), University of Arizona ). Retrieved 19 January 2014. see also William G. Dever: Selected Publications〕 and Thomas L. Thompson,〔(Thompson, Thomas L., 12 works ). Retrieved 19 January 2014. see also Thomas L. Thompson: Books.〕 but are supported by researchers such as William F. Albright,〔Albright, William F., ''The Bible and the Ancient Near East'', ed. G. Ernest Wright, Bibliography: lists over 825 published scholarly contributions which appeared between 1911 and 1958. see (A Review by Thomas F. McDaniel of William F. Albright's ''History, Archaeology, and Christian Humanism, ''Palmer Seminary'' ). Retrieved 19 January 2014.〕 Bryant G. Wood〔(Wood, Bryant G. 1936– WorldCat Identities: Works by Bryant G. Wood ). Retrieved 19 January 2014.〕 and Norman L. Geisler.〔Geisler, Norman (1977, May 1996) ''A Popular Survey of the Old Testament'', Baker Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8010-3684-2; Geisler, Norman (1982, 4 August 2004) ''Decide For Yourself: How History Views the Bible'', Zondervan. ISBN 978-1-59244-783-1.〕 A timeline or chart of biblical dates is erected according the "plain meaning" of the numbers of the years as found in the text (see Clarity of scripture). Researchers have pointed out that Biblical chronology largely uses numbers which were significant to the biblical authors: the basic numbers are 12, 40 (a "generation"), and 480 (12 generations of 40 years); other significant numbers include 10, 20, 60, and 100.〔Thompson, Thomas L., (2000)''(The historicity of the patriarchal narratives )'', Trinity Press, pp. 14–15.〕 (''See'' Biblical numerology ''and'' Significance of numbers in Judaism.) An historically established date in the common calendar which corresponds to the occurrence of a key biblical event known to history is required as a starting point, drawn from reliable sources outside the Bible.〔An exact historical chronology is linked to fixed events known to have occurred on a specific date, in contrast to a relative chronology which lists events in general chronological order, often without dates. Exact historical dates are provided for ancient Israel by Assyrian chronology, through the use of lists of year names (eponyms) that can be linked to a solar eclipse known to have occurred in 763 BCE. Assyrian tablets refer to Ahab king of Israel, who fought Shalmaneser III at the Battle of Qarqar and died in 853 BCE, and to Jehu king of Israel, who in his 1st year paid tribute to Shalmaneser III in 841 BCE. From these dates an historical chronology is reckoned from the length of the reigns in the books of the Kings, giving Solomon's 40-year reign as 970 to 930 BCE, instead of 1022 to 982 as reckoned from the length of the reigns in the books of Kings starting from the historically established date of the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar in 587 BCE. ''Source'': Joel F. Drinkard, Jr. and E. Ray Clendenen, "Chronology of the Biblical Period", ''Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary'', 2003, p. 291b. ISBN 978-0-8054-2836-0. —Note that the well-known exact historical chronologies of William F. Albright and Edwin R. Thiele based on Assyrian chronology do not agree.〕〔Ahituv, Shmuel, ed., ''Echoes from the Past: Hebrew and Cognate Inscriptions from the Biblical Period'' (Jerusalem: Carta, 28 February 2008). p. 528. ISBN 978-965-220-708-1.〕 (''See'' extra-biblical sources.) Then an exhaustive knowledge of the numbers of years explicitly stated in the Scriptures and a calculator provide the detailed data. With 587 BCE as an historically established base date and counting back, a chronology of the dates of the reigns of the kings and the judges, of the date of the Exodus, the dates of all the patriarchs back to the Flood, the dates of the antediluvian patriarchs and the date of the formation of Adam in the Garden of Eden, can be stated as a literal interpretation. While biblical literalists can set out charts and timetables dating events in the Bible, different methods of harmonizing the dates of those events yield differing results,〔Palmer B. Is the Earth 6,000 Years Old, 9,000 Years Old, or 13,000 Years Old? (How biblical literalists get their numbers ).〕 even while they generally agree on the relative order of most events. Even some who accept biblical authority nevertheless argue that many numbers in the Bible are figurative, especially "40" and its multiples—thus, 480 years before the 4th year of the reign of Solomon (12 × 40 years = 480 years) is not necessarily regarded by them as a literal number having historical value. Numerical inconsistencies of dates appear between Kings and Chronicles, and attempts by both scholars and literalists to precisely date events before the reign of Solomon have not been successful. Many biblical scholars discount the Bible's chronological data entirely (Biblical Minimalism), preferring to give priority to archaeological clues in establishing biblical chronology.〔"Chronology of the Biblical Period", Joel F. Drinkard, Jr. and E. Ray Clendenen, ''Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary'' (2003), pp. 691b–695a. ISBN 978-0-8054-2836-0.〕 But even they do not agree in their conclusions.〔Hyatt, J. Philip (© January 1, 1964 by The Bethany Press). ''The Heritage of Biblical Faith: an aid to reading the Bible''. Saint Louis, Missouri: The Bethany Press. p. 367. ISBN 978-0-8272-1416-3., , Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number 64-13404. Chapter I: A Modern Approach to the Bible. (1964 edition in the public domain, not the 1977 edition published by Chalice Press © 1977.〕〔Hyatt, J. Philip, ''The Heritage of Biblical Faith'', 1964, p. 41〕 Biblical literalists who reject figurative and symbolic readings prefer to take each biblical number literally, as an expression of their belief in the Bible as the word of truth from God.〔 Difficulties attending any literal interpretation of the chronology of the Bible can be resolved, according to the Catechism of the Catholic Church: "The ''literal sense'' is the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture and discovered by exegesis, following the rules of sound interpretation."〔''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' (CCC) n. 116: "The ''literal sense'' is the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture and discovered by exegesis, following the rules of sound interpretation: 'All other senses of Sacred Scripture are based on the literal.' St. Thomas Aquinas ''STh'' I, 1, 10 ''ad'' 1." ISBN 1-57455-109-4. "The task of interpreting the Word of God authentically has been entrusted solely to the Magisterium of the Church, that is, to the Pope and to the bishops in communion with him"(''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' (CCC) n. 100 ).〕〔Reading strictly according to the "surface meaning" of the literal letter of the text alone can be problematic. The task of resolving apparently inconsistent numerical and chronological data in the Scriptures according to the actual "literal sense" of the text so as to support and preserve confident belief in the veracity, authenticity and accurate historical reliability of the Bible against the skepticism of its detractors is entrusted to competent biblical researchers: ''See'' Leo XIII Encyclical (18 November 1893) ''Providentissimus Deus'' (PD)—(online link to document ) :"''...the first thing to be done is to vindicate the trustworthiness of the sacred records at least as human documents...''" (PD 17.) "''... It follows that those who maintain that an error is possible in any genuine passage of the sacred writings, either pervert the Catholic notion of inspiration, or make God the author of such error. And so emphatically were all the Fathers and Doctors agreed that the divine writings, as left by the hagiographers, are free from all error, that they labored earnestly, with no less skill than reverence, to reconcile with each other those numerous passages which seem at variance – the very passages which in great measure have been taken up by the "higher criticism"; for they were unanimous in laying it down, that those writings, in their entirety and in all their parts, were equally from the ''afflatus'' of Almighty God, and that God, speaking by the sacred writers, could not set down anything but was true....''" (PD 21.) ''See especially'' Anstey, Martin. (1913). (''The Romance of Bible Chronology''—online link to text ) :"''Bible study is the study of the Bible. There are many methods and departments; none is without value; all of them, when done thoroughly rather than superficially, tend to the deepening of conviction as to the accuracy of the records.''" —From the ''Foreword'' by Rev. G. Campbell Morgan, D.D. ''See'' Pius XII Encyclical (30 September 1943) ''Divino afflante Spiritu'' (DAS)—(online link to document ) :"''...the manner of speaking, relating and writing in use among the ancients is made clear by'' () ''innumerable examples.''" (DAS 12.) "''For it is the duty of the exegete to lay hold, so to speak, with the greatest care and reverence of the very least expressions which under the inspiration of the Divine Spirit have flowed from the pen of the sacred writer, so as to arrive at a deeper and fuller knowledge of his meaning.''" (DAS 15.) "''...the supreme rule of interpretation is to discover and define what the writer intended to express.''" (DAS 34.) "''...moreover there are not wanting even non-Catholic writers, who by serious and calm inquiry have been led to abandon modern opinion and to return, at least in some points, to the more ancient ideas'' (literal interpretation )." (DAS 43.)〕 Currently there is no absolute consensus on a definitive literal tabulation of dates in Biblical chronology. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Biblical literalist chronology」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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